TOWARD TRANSLANGUAGING AS LINGUISTIC AND PEDAGOGY PRACTICES IN A PRESTIGIOUS BILINGUAL EDUCATION CONTEXT Translinguagem como prática linguística e pedagógica na educação bilíngue de elite

This present study aims at analyzing the use of linguistic repertoire in a prestigious bilingual elementary school (Portuguese/English) context in the city of Goiania, state of Goias, Midwest of Brazil. The theorizations underpinning the investigation are the concept and role of L1/L2 in the interaction and collaboration among Universidade Federal do Paraná Departamento de Letras Estrangeiras Modernas Revista X, v.15, n.1, p. 75-91, 2020. 76 students and teacher in English classes (DULAY; BURT; KRASHEN, 1982; MCLAUGHLIN, 1992; FIGUEIREDO, 2005; HARSEJSANI; RAYATI; YAQUBI, 2011); the concept of ZPD (FIGUEIREDO, 2006) and scaffolding (FIGUEIREDO, 2006); and the concept of translanguaging as an alternative to linguistic and pedagogy practices in prestigious bilingual education classes (BLACKLEDGE; CREESE, 2014; GARCÍA, 2009; GARCÍA; SELTZER, 2015; GARCÍA; WOODLEY, 2015). To discuss the empiric material generated in an oral activity in an English class, the following questions guided the study: a) is it possible to use the students’ L1 as a tool/scaffolding to develop their L2?; b) why translanguaging in bilingual classes can be a possibility to enable more heteroglossic linguistic and pedagogy practices? This paper falls into the scope of the interpretive qualitative research (DENZIN; LINCOLN, 2018). The results showed that, most of the time, translanguaging practices help the students develop their linguistic repertoire.


INTRODUCTION
Our view of bilingual education is complex, like the banyan tree, allowing for growth in different directions at the same time and grounded in the diverse social realities from which it emerges. (GARCÍA, 2009, p. 17) The number of prestigious bilingual elementary schools in Brazil has increased lately, however, most of them are private, with high tuitions, turning into a very restricted type of education in which only elite groups have access. As a result, a significant number of students enrolled in prestigious bilingual schools in Brazil comes from the upper class.
Globalization has been a key factor for parents to choose this type of schools, maybe because of the belief that their children are going to be more prepared to compete for better jobs or have more opportunities to study abroad. According to García (2009, p. 112), "the social elite have always had experience with bilingual education", for example, in colonial contexts their children were often taught the language of power through schooling. The author also highlights that in Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa upper class family usually sends their children to bilingual schools in order to learn prestigious languages, such as, French, German, or English.
Bilingual education is a simple label for a complex phenomenon, specially because of its ambiguity since it is used in a technical sense to refer to programs that incorporate the use of two languages in the classroom, but also to refer to any kind of program for bilingual children (CAZDEN;SNOW, 1990). In general, García and Lin (2016), define bilingual education as the use of two languages in education, often to make students bilingual and biliterate. As stated in García (2009), in globalized context of the twentyfirst century, the idea of learning a second language must be renewed by the idea of the bilingual whose communicative practices include translanguaging. Hence, the role that the first language (L1) 1 plays in the process of learning 2 a second language (L2) is still controversial nowadays. For some scholars and educators, the L1 is considered a villain that has to be fought in order to facilitate the learning of the L2 (DULAY; BURT; KRASHEN, 1982). However, the authors affirm that "in recent years, data have accumulated that place the L2 learner's first language in a more respectable, sometimes even valuable, place" (DULAY; BURT; KRASHEN, 1982, p. 96). Furthermore, as García and Woodley (2015, p. 139) highlight, talking about new debates, "some scholars speak about first languages, second languages, and even third languages, whereas seen through a heteroglossic lens, the language practices of bilinguals are not made up of two or more autonomous language systems".
In the context of bilingual education in Brazil, the scenario is even more opaque.
For years the practice was to divide the number of hours to instruct students in the L1 and L2 (as an example, 50% of the time for each language) in order to develop proficiency in the two languages. Nevertheless, it is something complicated to control or measure, once the students are bilingual and they interact all the time using their entire linguistic repertoire. According to McLaughlin (1992, p. 4), the use of the home language in bilingual classrooms enables the child to avoid falling behind in school work, and it also provides a mutually reinforcing bond between the home and the school. In fact, the home language acts as a bridge for children, enabling them to participate more effectively in school activities while they are learning English.
Thus, underpinning the investigation are the concept and role of L1/L2 in the interaction and collaboration among students and teacher in English classes (DULAY; BURT; KRASHEN, 1982;MCLAUGHLIN, 1992;FIGUEIREDO, 2005;HARSEJSANI; RAYATI; YAQUBI, 2011); the concept of ZPD (FIGUEIREDO, 2006) and scaffolding (FIGUEIREDO, 2006;GARCÍA, 2009); and the concept of translanguaging as an alternative to linguistic and pedagogy practices in bilingual education classes (BLACKLEDGE;CREESE, 2014;GARCÍA, 2009;GARCÍA;SELTZER, 2015;GARCÍA;WOODLEY, 2015). The aim of this study is to discuss the empirical material generated in two lessons in the context of a prestigious bilingual school This paper is organized into four parts: in the first one, the study is introduced; in the second one, the theoretical background in which this investigation was grounded is given; in the third one, the context and also the discussion on the empirical material is presented; and in the fourth one, some final remarks are delineated.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In the past, theories as the contrastive analysis hypothesis sought to understand the interference of the L1 in the L2 acquisition. Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982)  Balanced Approach, which shows the respect by the teachers for the students' L1, avoiding doing things that will make the L1 seems inferior to English, but, at the same time, will help the learners to develop their proficiency in L2.
To enhance the development of the L2, Paiva (1999, cited in FIGUEIREDO, 2005 affirms that "interaction is of fundamental importance for any type of learning, especially regarding foreign language learning" 3 , thus, the teacher needs to provide opportunities so that the students may interact with classmates and also with the teacher. However, in classes where the students share the same L1, some teachers are afraid to propose pair or group activities claiming that they will shift to their L1 while they are in collaborative activities (HARSEJSANI; RAYATI; YAQUBI, 2012). Hence, this fear is more related to a monoglossic view of language practices and it is contrasted by a heteroglossic view of language where translanguaging practices among students in bilingual classes allows the students to use their entire linguistic repertoire. García and Seltzer (2015, p. 22), explain in a practical way the concept of translanguaging: If you are bilingual and you own a smartphone, you will understand the difference between the concept of translanguaging and the concept of named languages in language education. When typing or texting, your smartphone allows you to change or switch languages simply by pressing a key and switching your keyboard, following the concept that there are named languages. But when bilingual speakers use their phones to text with other bilinguals, they use their entire language repertoire of features, their own language, with some words and phrases associated with one named language and other words and phrases associated with the other. The result is that the smartphone autocorrects words in one language to words in that of the language you're typing in, often to very frustrating -or humorous -effect! Translanguaging is the ability to precisely ignore this kind of language function on the smartphone, and to use all language features fluidly because they are part of the bilingual speaker's repertoire. The reality is that bilinguals communicate without regard to whether their language features are categorized as belonging to one language or another. However, society -and most importantly, the school -educates bilinguals according to a named-language view, not this translanguaging view.
Therefore, translanguagings are multiple linguistic and discursive practices in which bilinguals engage, so that they can make sense of their bilingual worlds and construct meaning (GARCÍA, 2009). Thus, an important aspect of bilingual speakers is that they are not two monolinguals in one person, to this extent, bilingualism is not about 1 + 1 = 2, but about the multiple language repertoire needed to be socially meaningful.
Many bilingual schools try to compartmentalize named languages and have strict policies of languages separation, but when the students are interacting with each other, they tend to violate the language use norms, using languages flexibly in order to support their understandings and building conceptual and linguistic knowledge (GARCÍA, 2009).
In order to comprehend the interaction, we need to understand the role of the collaborative learning and its benefits for the development of linguistic repertoire. In short, collaborative learning are events where two or more people learn, or at least, try to learn together through interactions (FIGUEIREDO, 2006). As Figueiredo (2006) states, collaborative learning is based on principles regarding sociocultural theory, developed by Vygotsky. According to this theory, people are social beings who learn through the interaction with others.
For Vygotsky (1998( , cited in FIGUEIREDO, 2006, the interaction of children with adults helps them to develop psychologically and, furthermore, he makes a distinction between two levels of development: the real and the potential. The real development is the ability of children to do tasks by themselves. On the other hand, the potential development is the ability they have to accomplish tasks with the help from adults. The intersection between the two levels of development is called Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD emerges from the dialogue and interaction when people engage themselves to accomplish an activity together resulting in cognitive development. Figueiredo (2006, p. 15) explains that "all psychological processes are, initially, social and only later they become individual" 4 .
Another important construct in collaborative learning is the scaffolding, which acts like a "supportive structure", and provides the learner with tools or help to solve a task or achieve a goal (FIGUEIREDO, 2006). However, the scaffolding is always temporary.
Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994( , cited in FIGUEIREDO, 2006 emphasizes that scaffoldings must be gradual, contingent and dialogic. From this perspective, accepting translanguaging in bilingual classes can be seen as a scaffold in order to provide opportunities for students to use their linguistic repertoire making sense of their interaction with classmates and teachers. Baker (2001, cited in GARCIA;LIN, 2016) identifies four potential educational advantages to translanguaging: a) promote a deeper and fuller understanding of the subject matter; b) help the development of the weaker language; c) facilitate home-school links and cooperation; d) help the integration of fluent speakers with early learners. Therefore, translanguaging practices may be an important tool to allow bilinguals interact using their entire linguistic repertoire to construct knowledge and meaning in classrooms.
Agency in English language teaching can be a means of transforming discursive practices in bilingual education contexts by incorporating new molds, considering, for example, translanguaging rather than a complete separation of the two languages.
Translanguaging discursive practices can contribute to a wide use of the student's linguistic repertoire (GARCÍA; WOODLEY, 2015). Regarding translanguaging in prestigious bilingual education, Lucena and Nascimento (2016, p. 54) state that: Bilingual pedagogy commonly legitimized in prestigious bilingualism scenarios advocates the use of a single language in the classroom. Thus, considering the fact that this type of bilingualism is widespread in Brazil, especially in large and medium-sized urban centers, we argue that translanguaging should also be discussed from this perspective of bilingual education. The production of knowledge in these scenarios can contribute to dispel the monolingual idealizing conception, which advocates the use of one language at a time, and can help students to creatively use their entire linguistic repertoire that includes, among other semiotic resources, their Portuguese.
The authors also point out that translanguaging practices can make the language teaching process less threatening and more collaborative.
When discussion about language teaching in a critical perspective, Pennycook (2001), recognizes that one of the challenges of critical applied linguistics is to find ways to theorize about human agency within power structures and also to theorize about ways of thinking, acting and behaving taking into account social, cultural, economic, ideological and discursive contexts, trying to make room for some possibility of freedom of action and change. Thus, the role of the teacher in the prestigious bilingual context can be to find a balance in his/her classes allowing translanguaging, being aware of the social aspects in which both he/her and his/her students are inserted, creating opportunities for deconstruction and destabilization to happen and promote change.

RESEARCH CONTEXT AND DISCUSSION
This investigation is grounded in interpretive qualitative research which studies the events in its natural context, seeking to make sense of, or interpret them through meanings people bring to them (DENZIN; LINCOLN, 2018). Therefore, the empirical material for this present study was generated in a prestigious bilingual elementary school (Portuguese/English) in the city of Goiânia, in the state of Goiás, Midwest of Brazil.
Nevertheless, it is important to understand bilingual education models and types in order to define prestigious bilingual education. Regarding classifications and definitions in bilingual education, Hornberger (1991( , cited in GARCÍA, 2009) explains that there is the concept of model, which is a broad category having to do with goals with respect to language, culture, and society; and program types, related to contextual and structural characteristics.
García (2009)   in order to join the discussion. García (2009, p. 47) affirms that, "bilinguals usually have differentiated use and competence in the languages in which they translanguage", the reason for that can be the amount of exposure to different language practices. Therefore, everybody in class was able to understand him in Portuguese and it was clear that he could comprehend the topic they were discussing, but the teacher, in a kind way, tried to encourage him to attempt speaking the sentence in English.
Thus, in the excerpt 1, we can notice two types of scaffolding: assistance and influence. When the students try to help Student A, they are influencing him; and when the teacher helps him, she is assisting him (FIGUEIREDO, 2006). In the excerpt 2, we can also see an influence scaffolding, once Student D shows Student C how he could say a word in English: It is interesting to notice that Student D gives a definition of the word considering the context, not the traditional meaning of the word desconhecido (unknown), and it shows how bilinguals responds to their communicative intent and situation with creativity. The excerpt 2 also presents an example of how translanguaging in the classroom helps students to acquire linguistic repertoire without any intervention from the teacher.
In the excerpt 3, the teacher asks a question and Student C answers in Portuguese, however, when the teacher says the answer in English, Student C reformulates his answer in the target language. We can notice that the learning does not happen separated from the 7 Translation: ... how do I say unknown? performance; it occurs at the time someone is performing (FIGUEIREDO, 2006).
[3] Teacher: Why is it necessary to divide the teams into groups? Student C: Se não, vai virar aquela bagunça! 8 Teacher: Because it's not possible all teams playing against all teams. Student C: Because it will spend a lot of time. Another interesting event (excerpt 4) shows that, sometimes, the students need to access their L1 to express more elaborated answers:  (1982, p. 109) affirm that "learners fall back on the first language when they have not 8 Translation: Because it is going to become a mess! acquired enough of the second language". Moreover, Student C could join the discussion and the use of his L1 was the reason for that. Many times, students want to be part of the discussion, but if the teacher is strict not allowing any use of the L1 in class, they will be silent. Schweers (1999, cited in NAZARY, 2008 also agrees that the use of an L1 in lessons can influence the classroom dynamic, provides a sense of security and allows students to express themselves. Besides that, translanguaging practices in bilingual classrooms can be a powerful mechanism to construct and mediate understandings, and also to include others (GARCÍA, 2009).
As the discussion goes on, Student D asks the teacher to say her question in Portuguese, once he could not understand it. At first, the teacher hesitates, but then, she uses her Portuguese repertoire to repeat the sentence. This is a good example of Balanced Approach (NAZARY, 2008) and the use of translanguaging in class, especially because she tries not to use her L1, nevertheless, she allows students to participate in the discussion speaking Portuguese and she uses it as scaffolding, so that they can understand better.
[5] Teacher: So, this is the only inequality that you can notice? There are different ways of teaching bilingually. García (2009), refers to three teaching models of bilingual teaching: convergent, immersion and multiple. According to the author, convergent bilingual teaching is the use of the two languages concurrently and the goal of instruction is the development of academic proficiency; immersion bilingual teaching belief is that the two languages are best developed in isolation, this model have a 9 Translation: Sometimes money can help, like, Qatar and Saudi Arabia are investing a lot of money in sports, so that Saudi Arabia managed to get to a World Cup and Qatar won South Korea. 10 Translation: Do you think that the countries which is part of the groups here… do they have the same chance of winning? clear and explicit language policy of teaching monolingually for bilingualism and it is often used in prestigious bilingual education; multiple bilingual teaching includes not only the development of bilingual proficiency, but as well as the translanguaging practices, and the two languages are used in combination. The teacher in excerpt 5 is teaching in a context that has strict policies of language separation, and that is the reason she hesitates to speak Portuguese, but once she allows translanguaging in class, the students understand her question and answer her in English. Although some students keep on expressing themselves in their L1, the teacher accepts that and carries on the discussion in English: it, but goes beyond code-switching and translation, because it refers to the process by which bilingual students perform bilingually in the myriad multimodal ways of classrooms (GARCÍA, 2009). Thus, the L1 in such scenario helps to clarify some points that the students did not understand, but not only that, it shows how bilingual systems work flowing from L1 to L2 to make sense. What we can notice, though, is that, throughout the world, translanguaging has been used by teachers to scaffold the teaching of a foreign language, and this tool supports language and content learning as students are challenged cognitively but also being provided with contextual and linguistic scaffolds to complete a task or interaction.

FINAL REMARKS
As mentioned in the introduction, the questions used to guide this study were: a) is it possible to use the students' L1 as a tool/scaffolding to develop their L2?; b) why translanguaging in bilingual classes can be a possibility to enable more heteroglossic linguistic and pedagogy practices? As a matter of fact, the use of Portuguese in English classes should not be seen as an impediment to learn the language, but it can be understood as a scaffolding used by students to negotiate and facilitate the process.
Indeed, what emerged from the investigation was that students resorted to their L1 when they wanted to express themselves but they did not have enough repertoire in the L2. They also used the L1 to ask for clarification, when they could not understand a question, for example. Consequently, translanguage was used as a scaffolding, to help their development and comprehension in the L2. By providing bilingual students with high contextual support or scaffold, meaningful bilingual pedagogy enables students to increasingly perform linguistically. As prestigious bilingual education follows the additive model, which has the goal of add a L2 to the person's repertoire, a new perspective for this type of education can be adopted, providing a blending of language separation with language integration that reflects the dynamic bilingual use and flexibility, as the children appropriate both the content and the language (GARCÍA, 2009). In other words, it is not only an alternation of languages, but a blending of languages that involve the creative process in which the language is used strategically as a set of dynamic linguistic resources to build meanings during interactions (LUCENA; NASCIMENTO, 2016).
I agree with García and Woodley (2015) when they talk about the importance of considering the use of translanguaging in schools, instead of a strict separation of languages. For the authors, Translanguaging theory has the potential to transform speakers and listeners, as privilege is taken away from "native speakers" and appropriated by all. By focusing on language features of the speaker's repertoire, and not on named autonomous languages per se, translanguaging has the potential, […] to provide all learners with equal educational opportunity and build a more just society. (GARCÍA; SELTZER, 2015, p. 21) Thus, I could not observe negative aspects regarding translanguaging in language education classroom, especially because students appropriate the use of their entire linguistic repertoire, and even though teachers may plan when and how they are going to use a specific language, bilinguals use their repertoires flexibly. According to García (2009), bending and blending ways of languaging bilingually will be crucial in the twentyfirst century. Therefore, rather than focusing on the language itself, translanguaging makes obvious that there are no clear boundaries between the languages of bilinguals.